Engineering Description or Classification of Weathered Rocks

Engineering Description or Classification of Weathered Rocks Introduction The description and Classification of Weathered rocks brought together a series of important studies by leading geologist and engineering researchers due to the countless difficulties encountered by engineers in weathered rock areas, how it affects site exploration, plan and evaluation steps during projects. In the 1950s there has been a considerable amount of literature published on the characterisation of weathered rocks and engineering properties of weathered materials, but there was little or no standardisation of descriptive terminology during this period, the use of these published data for the prediction of the engineering behaviour away from the original study areas is limited. Thereafter the publications by the Geological Society Engineering Group Working Party; the International Society of Rock Mechanics, the British Standards Institution, the International Association of Engineering Geologist and Dearman have rationalised the terminology by the use of standard descriptive indices and simple index testing. These schemes enable the geologist or Civil engineer to describe the materials and rock structure in engineering terms, and how it has been adopted for general practice worldwide. However the choice of which scheme to use is generally dependent on the preference of the engineer responsible. Background Analysis The earliest attempts to classify weathered rocks in such a manner that will prove useful to engineering goes back to the early 1950s when weathering classification of granite was introduced by Moye in the Snowy Mountains of Australia. Moye proposed the scheme for the promotion and identification of engineering properties of weathered rock materials and how it would help to formulate the weathering terms of granite when they are used during site investigation by various group of persons. Six classes of rock materials were described based on the concept that logging of cores would be done on the basis of recognition of weathering types irrespective of order; surface or downwards and without any attempt fitting the initial results of the logging into a formatted or general weathering profile with subsequent zones established in the rock mass. Little (1967), discussing laterites, suggested that the Moye classification could be applied to â€Å"other lateritic-type soils† and would be more successful for the purpose, than the usual temperate soil classification into clay, silts etc. The interesting feature was that Little applied grade numbers to the various degrees of weathering recognised by Moye (1955); grade I was fresh rock and grade VI was rock weathered to a residual soil. Then the classifications of weathered rock came to a stage where a group of specialist came together in the UK and published a report on the first formalised weathering classification of rocks under the name of Geological Society Engineering Group Working Party Report on The Logging of Rock Cores for Engineering Purposes (Anon, 1970 in (Dearman, 1995). Its evident that this was also mainly based on the classification of (Moye, 1955) scheme. However, few amendments were made; the Moyes granitic soil term was changed to residual soil thereby increasing the number of categories from six to seven classes. Thus the new scheme was suggested to apply for a broader range of rocks while it was initially devised to granite. Another point of interest was that of the Working Party scheme which relied mostly on general descriptions and observations, which includes friability while that of Moye was based on classification on specific index test. To pave the way for the mass scheme recommendation in BS5930: 1981 (Anon, 1995), thus the latter scheme grades were reduced back to 6 as it was originally done by (Moye, 1955) and the same terminology was used with a complete different meaning. The argument over using the description of the materials or the mass scales for a classification came on. However, the required different approaches was advocated and grading the materials recommended to be; decomposed, disintegrated, fresh and discoloured. Duncan (1969) also proposed a scheme based on texture, structure, composition and classification (calcareous or non-calcareous), colour and grain size. Following the publication of BS5930: 1981, attempts have been made at developing classification schemes which allow the degree of weathering to be defined for different lithologies, (Table.2) (Anon 1970, Anon 1977, BS 5930 1981). The early schemes (Anon 1970, for instance) were based on the chemical weathering of granite rocks and represented a hybrid material grade and zone scheme. In 1977, the working party of the Engineering Group of Geological Society on the Description of Rock Masses (Geological Society of London 1977) clearly separated the description of weathering on a rock mass scale. This scheme, like the earlier ones, placed great emphasis on the weathering profiles developed on granitic rocks in tropical and sub-tropical environments, although, little guidance was given for the description of weathering. The British Standard proposed that weathered rock materials may be described or graded using four terms: decomposes, disintegrated, fresh and discoloured, but they did not provide any guidance for determining and describing the degree or weathering. Attempts to use these schemes in the description of rock materials have met with difficulty. It is the opinion of the authors that any reference to the degree of weathering should be omitted from the description unless it is known with some certainty on the basis of experience and knowledge of the typical weathering profile for that rock type. For rock weathering in conditions where physical disintegration dominates, it is unlikely that the degree of weathering may be determined from examination of rock materials alone. The descriptive scheme for weathering was later criticized as being too restrictive in scope and not easily applicable to a wide range of rock types and structural situation, though this was the original intention. As its indicated by (Cragg and Ingman, 1995) a number of problems may arise when (BS5930: 1981) is used for major projects. At the initial stage it is difficult to extrapolate the weathering pattern in two or three dimensions of rock cores. In some occasions this question cannot be fully answered unless closely spaced boreholes are cored, logged and then mass zones are ascribed after the complete set has been logged. In addition, drill-hole may be insufficiently dense for a derivation of a mass tract from material core logs. The critics of (BS5930: 1981) do not always have more objective alternative schemes of classifications. For some the type of rock alternative schemes may be preferred over the (BS5930: 1981), including (Chandler, 1969) for Merica Mudstone and (Chandler, 1972) for Upper Lisa Clay and etc. In a situation where weathering dominates many aspects of geotechnics, the complementary classifications of (Moye, 1955) and (Ruxton and Berry, 1957) were essentially adopted as standards by the Hong Kong Government for engineering descriptions in 1979 (Anon, 1979) in (Anon, 1995), however, it is clear that all these alternatives are site or region specified. They are generally rock mass schemes based and gradational or depth controlled. The IAEG (Anon, 1981c) in (Anon, 1995) recommended a presumably factual scale of percentages of weathering with no guidance for how this scale should be applied. According to the scheme, the degree of weathering can be expressed quantitatively by laboratory study. But these approaches remain liable to lead to misunderstanding and disputes concerning descriptions. As far as the problems and difficulties prolonged in all engineering projects in the weathered rocks, the demand for such classification increased. Weathered rocks can cause particular difficulties especially in site investigations. They are often open textured and weakly bonded; they can be very sensitive to disturbance during sampling. Also their profile are often complex and variability cannot be predicted with standard geological interpolation or extrapolation. The confusion, inapplicability of the suggested classification schemes combined with the lack of agreement between professionals working in the field has led to various bodies producing their own classifications, e.g. (Anon, 1988b). Similarly, many have turned back to the (Anon, 1970) and (Anon, 1972). Some others keep using formation specified schemes like that of (Chandler, 1969). The Engineering Group of the Geological Society in an attempt to make critics see the ambiguity in its thesis has commissioned a Working Party to study the description and classification of weathered rocks for engineering purposes. The Report of Working Party (1995) provides a scheme for describing the state of weathering for uniform rock materials which are moderately strong or stronger in the fresh state which shows a clear gradation in engineering properties during weathering. The proposed classification scheme requires the use of appropriate index tests such as the point load text and slaking tests. The most logical approach to the problem of classifying degree of weathering is to describe the rock material without attempting to provide a statement on how weathered it may be, apart from commenting on the presence of discolouration, decomposition, voids and softening. Once sufficient descriptive data on the rock material and the rock mass has been acquired to establish the mechanisms and stages of weathering present, a site specific weathering classification can be developed to provide a consistent means of describing both the rock material and, more importantly the rock mass. According to (Anon, 1995); â€Å"The Working Party this time preferred to make recommendations rather than attempting to deal with all aspects of weathering†. In addition to circulating the draft at various stages among many correspondents and adding valued contribution to it, a three day meeting was held at the Leeds University, UK, in April 1994 for a more elaborate discussion. The Working Party report was then used during a day in the field and employed in the description of the weathered rocks in the laboratory (Anon, 1995). Conclusion Apart from the potential communication problems, there is a strong argument for the need to devise a single modified version of the weathered rock classification proposed that might find more general acceptance and be more readily applicable in field assessments, both rock material and rock mass.

Bibliography paper

Discuss the relative merits of top-down and bottom-up approaches to the diffusion of renewable energy technologies. †Word count: 1300 Introduction The question of whether an Initiative Is considered top-down or bottom-up Is a question of perspective, so a local council Annihilative can be viewed as a bottom up If you view It from a central government perspective, whereas you could view It as top down If you were one of the residents.Diffusion follows the innovation phase, and is all about uptake of new products by consumers, how new products enter the market and spread across. Therefore, diffusion is a measure of how successfully a new product has spread through society. In his book ‘Diffusion of Innovations' ref) Everett Rogers espouses that there are four mall elements that Influence the spread of a new Idea: the innovation Itself, communication channels, time, and a social system.In order to self-sustain, the Innovation must be widely adopted. The diffusion of Innovati ons according to Rogers. With successive groups of consumers adopting the new technology (shown in blue), its market share (yellow) will eventually reach the saturation level. Diffusion doesn't happen by itself, as it squires element of the marketing mix: product price place promotion. Process physical evidence properties pleasure people. ND Rogers' criteria for diffusion: relative advantage (offering a competitive advantage) complexity (being easy to use) compatibility (matching existing products) Absorbability (seeing the product in use) Tractability (trying the product out) Diffusion is also significantly affected by such factors as the efforts companies and organizations put into achieving those marketing mix elements and criteria for diffusion: government Initiatives aimed at Influencing the take up of new cosmologies (top-down, technology push); and the characteristics of the consumers In that market place.In the conventional depictions of consumer responses to products, consu mers are seen as passive – simply selecting from what Is on offer. However, some consumers are becoming more selective and are concerned about accordingly In his book ‘Enabling Innovation', Boor Outwitted describes innovation as involving a Darwinian process of selection. New ideas are tested and tried, but adopted only if they are seen as valuable by consumers (*ref) Top down *See â€Å"what makes renewable energy work. UDF† in 30TH folder Any technology signed to be used by society on the macro level (larger scale) needs to be integrated into existing technical and social structures. This means that these structures must be adapted to support an efficient use of the technology. The task of managing this adaptation requires the finance and support of governments.Key elements of technology support systems for renewable energy systems are: Public awareness and acceptance Qualification of everyone that interacts with the system (Installation, Maintenance and Operat ion) Quality control: every new technology goes through a number of iterations until reliable and efficient operation is achieved. If products entering the market do not meet a minimum standard confidence will be affected and diffusion may be prematurely halted. Organizational infrastructures supporting the technology must be in place to guarantee that a deficient device can be repaired quickly, and that spare parts are available.Logistical infrastructures are in place to provide fuels (in the case of Biomass) efficiently and in sufficient quantities – this may require the use of financial incentives for farmers to switch to alternative crops to support the technology. Development of standards regarding the renewable technology and fuels seed by them – this will encourage more manufacturers to enter the market thus driving performance up, and costs down, enabling further diffusion. Qualification of those indirectly confronted by the technology – architects, plan ners, public decision makers.They have special interests and create new markets with their purchasing choices. They influence the market in a bottom-up way.. Level 5 developer consumers. They develop new or modified products to meet their needs or concerns. They become more proactive in a bottom-up way in terms of technological innovation, and sometimes operate in niche markets. Level 6 Consumer innovators. Consumer initiatives lead to success and diffusion. The products transcend the niche markets created by these proactive consumers, and these products and the enterprises that have created them may become part of the mainstream. These consumers change the market and the products, and these changes may become part of the new order.At each successive level in this list, the influence of businesses on innovation and effusion decreases, as consumer influence and involvement increases. However, in all categories, business involvement is still strong and ultimately, at level 6, any succ essful products emerging from the bottom-up process are likely to be taken up by conventional companies. ‘The levels of consumer involvement shown above apply to individual consumers and small grass-roots user groups. However, these are not the only sources of external influence on the rate of technological development and diffusion. Consumers can also be part of wider consumer organizations and environmental pressure groups. Placements through the lobbying power and public influence of large numbers of members. For example, green groups may oppose nuclear power and support solar power. Clearly, given the involvement of grass-roots activists, this is a bottom-up approach, although some pressure groups have national and international roles and can be major players in the high-level political processes. ‘ The DVD includes illustrative examples which are relevant to your discussion on the relative merits of each aspect of the top-down and bottom-up approaches. They include the Hector Housing project, the Austrian DID solar case study, SamÃ'‘, Local generation in Waking etc. Ochs your attention to the good aspects of each approach. Think about such things as where these approaches might be best suited (and examples thereof), and also how whether they are mutually exclusive. Argue the case for and against various strategies for supporting diffusion for specific technologies or programmers. – Identify in general terms the key factors likely to influence the successful diffusion of new technological developments – Assess the relative merits of top-down and bottom-up approaches to diffusion and to the wider innovation process. Http://nun. Du/publications/articles/policy-innovation-for-technology-diffusion- Japanese-renewable-energy. HTML – Bottom up driving top-down: â€Å"Prior to the adoption of RPR, there were vociferous calls from the civil society requesting that the government introduce another policy model instead. The Feed-i n Tariff (FIT) is a policy generally proven to be successful in the member states of the European Union† Learning outcome 1 . 1: The way in which market, environmental and economic factors influence the consumer take-up (diffusion) of new products. – Block 4, page : key points of section 1 Block 4, page : key points of section 2 http://www. Warwick. AC. UK/face/cross_face/low_carbon/conference/programmer/low- carbon_conference_king_Wang_final_comma. PDF Diffusion theory is a collection of concepts that attempt to explain how new ideas, products or practices are taken up into use by domestic, commercial and industrial consumers.According to Everett Rogers (1983), a leading theoretician, diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system' leading to its subsequent adoption into widespread use. Rogers identifies five factors that influence diffusion. He suggests the ease and rate performan ce and/or cost terms, compared with existing products compatibility – with existing products, and with consumers' values and lifestyles complexity – by contrast, he argues that complexity is a negative attribute absorbability – seeing it in action, including seeing how others get on using it Tractability – availability for personally checking out its merits.In addition, perceived risk or danger in use could be added to the list as another potential disincentive. Consumers have increasingly become active in making complaints about the quality of products and services. In parallel, and more positively, consumers increasingly seem to be willing to put effort into searching for what they want. This is not to do simply with price. With a generally more affluent population, the focus is increasingly on performance and quality as well as value. Block 4, pig 15 For the present, it should simply be noticed that not all of this enhanced consumer selectivity is rela ted to self-interested personal utility concerns such as performance, quality or technical advantages, or even a desire for more things.Some consumers have adopted wider ethical stances in relation to what they buy and what they will tot buy, and sometimes, how much they will buy. In practice, only a few people opt for frugal denial, but many more are concerned about the sheer volume of their personal consumption and may seek to cut back on things they feel are frivolous or in some way undesirable. According to research for the Co-operative Banks Ethical Purchasing Index, in the period from 1999 to 2002, 52 per cent of I-J consumers boycotted at least one product because they disapproved of the practices of the company concerned. It was estimated that E. 6 billion had been lost by firms in 2002 due to consumers switching brands on ethical grounds.A survey in 2004 of potential consumer attitudes to companies that did not comply with the new environmental legislation requiring compani es to reduce carbon dioxide emissions -introduced under the EX. Emissions trading scheme(Elk TEST) – found that consumers would vote with their feet if companies failed to comply with this new green legislation. One in three respondents to the survey said they would switch brand allegiance on environmental grounds if a company they regularly buy goods and services from failed to comply (Illogical, 2004). Moreover, consumer responses are not simply negative – some consumers will costively select products which comply with environmental legislation or which are marketed as, for example, involving fair trading with producers in developing countries, or which avoid testing on animals.Block 4, pig 16 environmental sensitivities that influence their purchasing decisions; some companies have responded to this new market; and the government seems keen that the public should do more, particularly in relation to selecting environmentally appropriate products. Learning outcome 1. 2: The role of consumers in supporting new product lines, resisting unwanted options and, on occasion, stimulating the production of, or even actually developing, desired products and services. – Block 4, page : key points of section 1 Block 4, page : Key points of section 2 Block 4, page : key points of section 4 Block 4, page : Key points of Section 5 Block 4, page : key points of section 6 Learning outcome 1. : The difference between top-down and bottom-up approaches to innovation and diffusion and the potential role of consumers and users in aiding diffusion and innovation. Block 4, page : key points of section 1 Block 4, page : key points of section 5 (Bottom -up) Block 4, page : key points of Section 6 (Bottom-up) Block 4, page : key points of Section 7 (Top-down) Learning outcome 1. 4: Consumer involvement with innovation and diffusion in the renewable energy sector and the problems that such activity may come up against. Block 4, : key points of section 1 Block 4, pa ge : key points of Section 2 Block 4, page : Impact on technology diffusion Block 4, page : key points of section 3 : key points of section 5 page page Block 4, page Consumer involvement classification.I have identified six levels of consumer involvement: At each successive level in this list, the influence of businesses on innovation and diffusion decreases, as consumer influence and involvement increases. However, in all categories, business involvement is still strong and ultimately, at level 6, any successful products emerging from the bottom-up process Block 4, page Governments influence the mix of products and systems in ways often beyond the control of consumers, through regulation, taxes and other policy mechanisms. They seek to stimulate the development and diffusion of selected technologies in line with wider national or international strategic priorities. For example, based on environmental policy, governments may seek to phase out the use of coal for electricity generati on and to back wind, wave or tidal power.Clearly this sort of influence involves a top-down approach, although one moderated by democratic processes. Learning outcomes 1. 5: The role of government in influencing the direction and effectiveness of the innovation process and the strategic development of technology in the context of trying to move to the environmentally sustainable use of energy. Block 4, page : Government energy options Block 4, page : Conclusions Block 4, page : key points of section 7 Block 4, pig 10 : key points of section 8 Block 4, piggy : key points of section 9 Learning outcome 1. 10: The role of diffusion and the part played by consumers in paving to a more sustainable approach to energy use.SAA 14: It is true that most innovations are the result of efforts by companies to develop products that will sell to consumers, with governments perhaps providing support for specific lines of development deemed strategically important. However, as has been argued in this block, the diffusion process can be greatly aided if consumers and users are involved in some way. Indeed, motivated consumers and users can sometimes create markets for new areas of innovation. Even when it comes to Just responding to innovations developed by others, the social and community context is important for diffusion. Certainly diffusion may be delayed or prevented if the community opposes the innovation – as was illustrated in the case of wind power.More positively, bottom-up initiatives from the grass-roots can sometimes throw up original ideas that can be diffused widely. Indeed, in some sectors this can be a major source of innovation in terms of new product development, as well as aiding Block 4, pig 23 Diffusion is the final stage of the innovation process, and is concerned with the take-up of new products by consumers. The rate of diffusion at any one time depends on how consumers react to new products. Some will adopt them quickly, most others will take the ir time, and a few will remain hesitant until there is no other option. In the conventional depictions of consumer responses to products, consumers are seen as passive – simply selecting from what is on offer.However, some consumers are becoming more selective and some are concerned about ethical, social and environmental issues and are adjusting their purchasing choices accordingly. A bottom-up grass-roots approach to innovation may offer some advantages over a top-down approach, by ensuring involvement of users in both reduce development and diffusion. A technology â€Å"push,† also known as top down transfer, is diffusion from higher levels of authority to lower levels. An example of â€Å"push† is Federal efforts at technology transfer through legislation, regulation, or policy. Entrepreneurs and other individuals or organizations whose objectives are to implement a technology typically â€Å"push† in order to do so. In marketing terms, the client is â€Å"sold† the technology.A transfer â€Å"pull† is Just the opposite, a bottom-up form of diffusion. The client demands the technology. The search for innovation moves up from the lower levels f an organization until it is accepted or addressed and resolved by higher authorities. Two systems exist for diffusion of innovation: centralized or decentralized. Decision making in centralized systems is concentrated at a high level, while decentralized systems feature wide sharing of power within the diffusion network. In centralized systems diffusion is vertical – from the top down, as innovations emerge from formal R&D projects. Centralized systems favor technology push, where â€Å"needs† are defined at a high level.Innovations which cannot be easily modified, or re-invented, re best diffused using a centralized system. Decentralized systems use horizontal diffusion, as local experimentation is often the innovation source and use technology pull, where need s are defined locally. Innovations which lend themselves to modification are best diffused by a decentralized approach because such an approach allows local adaptation of innovations to reflect local needs. There are, as a general rule, two types of projects. Projects following top-down procedures where large projects are conceived and announced by the Ministry of Scientific Research and Information or Ministry of Environment. Those commissioned projects are rewarded with large amount of money.The second type of project concerns smaller ones and follows a bottom-up approach with three different types of grants: grants for public research (PRO or Universities), SEEM projects and projects supported by the EX. Framework programmer. Http://sustainabledevelopment. UN. Org/content/documents/Kandahar. PDF top down monitoring and audit process to ensure that the quality standards are strictly met and the Company policies and procedures are being properly followed Top-down Definition  œ A development or change initiated and managed from above by overspent or companies: the conventional approach macroeconomic measures Block 4, pig 82 governments can ensure the successful development and spread of strategically selected technologies.This will include a look at new technology development as well as at diffusion because the successful diffusion of new products frequently rests on how well those products have been developed. For example, the UK government's 2003 innovation review identified environmental issues, and the need for improved, lower impact products and services, as a key driver for future innovation. The review suggested that some of the new developments would be specific environmental goods and services, such as technologies to minimize pollutants or promote resource efficiency, or renewable energy sources Block 4, pig 86 Nevertheless, in order to achieve its aim of increasing the contribution from renewable, the I-J government found it necessary to provi de support to enable the newly emerging technologies to enter the marketplace.New technologies usually face a challenge in trying to get established in markets dominated by the existing range of products, and this was clearly a problem for renewable faced with the nominate fossil fuel and nuclear industries. So the government decided to provide extra support to stimulate diffusion, by adjusting the market. As noted earlier, this is sometimes called market ennoblement – enabling key new technologies to be taken up by the market. Block 4, pig 90 By contrast, the subsidy systems for wind projects in Germany, Denmark and elsewhere meant they could make use of locations with much lower wind speeds – indeed they often had little choice because, for example, Denmark is mostly flat and wind speeds there and in Germany are generally much lower than in the I-J. Block 4, pig 93

Introduction of 4ps Essay

Marketing The 4 Ps of marketing are Product, Price, Place, and Promotion. Think of each of these as a variable which you control. The idea is to set these variables in such a way so that sales will take place. You cannot â€Å"make† a customer pull out her credit card, but you can certainly help her in coming to a decision by setting the â€Å"right† price, the retail location, the level of advertising and even product attributes such as colour or perceived quality. You control everything but the customer herself. These variables are all interdependent. Taken together, they constitute a certain mix. This is often referred to as the marketing mix. In defining this mix it is also necessary to take into account your competitor’s mix as well as your overall corporate goals and objectives. The idea is to come up with a mix that will clearly differentiate your products from those of your competitors while considering your corporate goals. For example, your company may wish to offer a high-end luxury type of product since your competitors are addressing the mass market and this is consistent with your company’s goal of owning  the market for top-of-the-line products of this category. Definition of 4P’s Product: The marketing mix concept has its roots in the 1950s U. S. corporate marketing world, and the practice of marketing has obviously evolved tremendously since this term was invented. One of the changes is that there are a lot more services available nowadays, such as those available online. Also, the distinction between product and service has become more blurry. Either way, product here refers to products or services. The product or service you offer needs to be able to meet a specific, existing market demand. Or, you need to be able to create a market niche through building a strong brand. Price: The price you set for your product or service plays a large role in its marketability. Pricing for products or services that are more commonly available in the market is more elastic, meaning that unit sales will go up or down more responsively in response to price changes. By contrast, those products that have a generally more limited availability in the market are more inelastic, meaning that price changes will not affect unit sales very much. The price elasticity of your product or service can be determined through various market testing techniques. Place: This term really refers to any way that the customer can obtain a product or receive a service. Provision of a product or service can occur via any number of distribution channels, such as in a retail store, through the mail, via downloadable files, on a cruise ship, in a hair salon, and so on The ease and options through which you can make your product or service available to your customers will have an effect on your sales volume. Promotion: Promotion is concerned with any vehicle you employ for getting people to know more about your product or service. Advertising, public relations, point-of-sale displays, and word-of-mouth promotion are all traditional ways for promoting a product. Promotion can be seen as a way of closing the information gap between would-be sellers and would-be buyers. Your choice of a promotional strategy will be dependent upon your budget, the type of product or service you are selling, and availability of said promotional vehicle.

Carrion Beetles, Family Silphidae

Look no further than your nearest road kill if you want to collect specimens in the family Silphidae. Carrion beetles inhabit the remains of dead vertebrates, munching on maggots and consuming the corpse. As gross as that sounds, its an important job. Carrion beetles also go by the common names burying beetles and sexton beetles. What Do Carrion Beetles Look Like? Unless you’re in the habit of examining carcasses, you may never come across a carrion beetle. Some species will fly to porch lights on summer evenings, so you may get lucky and find one on your front door. While we might find the carrion beetle’s diet rather distasteful, these scavengers provide a vital ecological service - disposing of carcasses. Most of the carrion beetles we encounter fall into one of two genera: Silpha or Nicrophorus. Silpha beetles are medium to large, oval in shape, and usually flattened. They’re typically black, sometimes with a yellow pronotum. Nicrophorus beetles (sometimes spelled Necrophorus) are commonly called burying beetles, thanks to their remarkable ability to move and bury carcasses. Their bodies are elongate, with shortened elytra. Many burying beetles are red and black in color. Though carrion beetles as a family range in size from just a few millimeters to as long as 35 mm, most species we commonly encounter top 10 mm in length. Silphids have clubbed antennae, and tarsi (feet) with 5 joints. Carrion beetle larvae have elongated bodies that taper at the hind end. Carrion Beetles Classifications Kingdom - AnimaliaPhylum - ArthropodaClass - InsectaOrder - ColeoopteraFamily - Silphidae Carrion Beetle Diet As adults, most carrion beetles feed on maggots, as well as on the decomposing carcass they inhabit. The adults’ voracious appetite for maggots certainly helps eliminate competition for their offspring. The carrion beetle larvae feed on the carcass, which would quickly be devoured by maggots without the intervention of the adult Silphids. A few carrion beetle species feed on plants, or even more rarely, prey on snails or caterpillars. The Carrion Beetle Life Cycle Like all beetles, Silphids undergo complete metamorphosis, with four stages of the life cycle: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The adult carrion beetles lay eggs on or near a decomposing carcass. The young larvae emerge in about a week and will feed on the carcass for up to a month before pupating. Interesting Behaviors of Carrion Beetles Burying beetles (genus Nicrophorus) practice remarkable feats of insect strength in an effort to beat the competition to the carcass. When a pair of burying beetles comes across a carcass, they will immediately go to work burying the body. A couple Nicrophorus beetles can completely inter a carcass as large as a rat in a matter of hours. To do so, the beetles plow the earth beneath the carcass, using their heads like bulldozer blades to push loose soil out from under the body. As more and more soil is excavated from beneath it, the carcass begins to settle into the ground. Eventually, the burying beetles push the loose soil back over the body, effectively hiding it from competitors like blow flies. If the soil beneath the carcass proves to difficult to dig, the beetles may work together to lift and carry the body to another location nearby. The bright bands of red or orange on the wings of many carrion beetles warn potential predators that they won’t make a very delicious meal, so don’t bother tasting them. There’s something to be said for the old adage â€Å"you are what you eat.† Carrion beetles, after all, feed on rotting flesh, and all the bacteria that goes along with it. Silphids apparently taste and smell like death. Where Do Carrion Beetles Live? The family Silphidae is a fairly small beetle group, with just 175 species known worldwide. Of these, about 30 species inhabit North America. Most carrion beetles inhabit temperate regions. Sources: Borror and DeLong’s Introduction to the Study of Insects, 7th Edition, by Charles A. Triplehorn and Norman F. JohnsonInsects: Their Natural History and Diversity, by Stephen A. MarshallKaufman Field Guide to Insects of North America, by Eric R. Eaton and Kenn KaufmanA Matter of Taste – The Natural History of Carrion Beetles, by Brett C. Ratcliffe, Curator of Insects, University of Nebraska State MuseumFamily Silphidae, Bugguide.net, accessed November 29, 2011